ED PS 6451 Foundations of Learning
Dr. Claire Son
Theory Pages
Cognition
Metacognition
Ashley Bell
Bryce Bird
Sonny Dulfo
Aubrey Hart
Lindsay Snow
Cognition
Theorists
J.R. Anderson: Anderson developed the most comprehensive network model of memory. Called adaptive control of thought (ACT). The model is built of of three types of memory structures being; declarative, procedural and working memory. He argued these different types of memories help store information in long-term memory.
R.C. Atkinson & R.M. Shiffrin: Atkinson and Shiffrin believed that when information is received it undergoes a series of transformations until it can be permanently stored in memory. They proposed three basic stages of memory being; sensory, short-term, and long term.
A.M. Collins & M.R. Quillian: Collins and Quillian believed that long term memory is composed in a way of a network. Long-term memory is stored by the idea of concepts are represented according to their associations with one another. The network model assumes that there is existence of nodes in the memory and these nodes are interconnected in a vast network structure.
G.A Miller: Miller argued that short term memory could hold around 7 pieces of information. He concluded that the idea of “chunking” is a way to break down complex ideas or tasks into manageable steps and of way of storing information into short-term or working memory.
A. Paivio: Paivio believed there are two systems of memory representation; verbal and nonverbal, so two codes are possible for memory known as dual-code or dual-systems.
E. Gagne: Gagne argued that there are five categories of learning; verbal information, intellectual skills, cognitive strategies, psychomotor skills and attitude.
J. Piaget: Piaget argued that children are born with a basic mental structure which then all learning is based upon thereafter. There are three features of his theory being; schema, Adaptation processes that allow transition between stages, and stages of development.
Role of the Learner
The learner has a larger role under the scope of cognitive theories. Essentially cognition are the activities in the mind behaviorist did not consider in their theories. The learner must take an active role in the learning process rather than being simply acted upon. First a student must be ready for the learning by being alert and and aware. They must strive to have other outside factors taken care to not distract or inhibit working memory.
The learner first takes in information in two ways according to Paivio. The stimuli is either visual or auditory. This is very quick and could be overwhelming.
Some of this stimuli enters the working memory. This is where the stimuli is thought about. The working memory does not hold much informations; possibly only about seven items. The learner must actively process the information in working memory to begin a learning experience. This would include many learning tasks such a reading, discussing, note taking and more. It can also be encoded by having a connection to prior knowledge or relating and applying to a learner's life. To better ensure information is committed to memory, students must use strategies and actively participate in any of the learning processes in a given lesson.
Role of the Instructor
Cognition suggest there are many processes occurring within the brain. The foremost concerning education is memory. An instructor must provide a setting for students where optimal learning occurs. There are many items to consider such as: learning environment, conditions of the learner, and cognitive strategies to ensure working memory is carried over to long term memory.
First the instructor must prepare the environment. This includes the equipment and items needed for instruction, and visual items to act as cues or for grouping/chunking the content. Next the learner must be assessed to determine prior knowledge. As a teacher designs or delivers instruction, they must consider what student already knows. The prior knowledge can act a reference to aid in encoding new information. Another way to help students with memory is to make the content applicable or relatable to their own lives or perspective. This can be done by referencing content ideas students views of interest or use to the student. Finally the instructor needs to consider the cognitive processes of their students. First they need to give students inputs for sensory memory. This can include any input about the content perceived by the senses. Once this is in sensory memory through designed presentation, the instructory aids students with using the information in working memory. This involves activities where students have to use the information such as reading or note taking and other activities. Then the instructor must provide instruction and activities where the information can be remembered. This can be done by facilitating more cognitive learning tasks such as group work, analysis based discussion, or creating a product. Repetition is key to committing information to memory. Under the cognitive theory, the more the repetition the more tasks, skills, or information can become automatic.
Process of Learning (how you learn while using this approach)
The processing of information is the emphasis of the cognitive and metacognitive approaches. Cognitive processing is how learners transfer information from sensory memory to working memory. Information in the working memory can be transferred to long term memory using strategies like chunking and encoding. If the transfer has been successful, learners will be able to retrieve the information from long term memory back into working memory for use. Schemas work in both cognitive and metacognitive processes. Learners are able to attach new information to an existing schema for better cognitive functioning. They are also able to rely on schemas for background information. Then they are more able to focus on how to handle the incoming information.
Instructional Applications (how you teach while using this approach)
Instructors helping students better their cognitive processing abilities will be looking for ways to help students chunk and encode information in their working memories so that the information will be transferred to their long term memories. As an instructor being aware of how information is presented and organized can significantly support learners in their ability to retain the information.
Chunking is the process of breaking down larger bits of information into smaller more manageable sizes. The human memory can only hold so many pieces of material in working memory at a time. If the material is broken down into meaningful parts, like patterns, learners have a better chance of the material moving from working memory into long term memory. For this reason, it is best for instructors to meaningfully select pieces of the information to share with learners at a single time. There is a very slim chance of memorability when there is too much information.
Encoding is connecting new information to information the learner has already stored into long term memory. Instructors should be aware of learners’ background knowledge so that new material can be more meaningfully attached to it. Explicit encoding skills should be taught to learners. While reading, learners can connect the book to something in their personal lives. This strategy, known as text-to-self, helps to encode information. Learners should also practice paraphrasing materials they have just read because putting it into their own words will make the information more personalized. Other encoding strategies include: the use of outlines, hierarchies, mnemonic devices, meditation, imagery, and self-questioning. Furthermore, instructors should alert learners to the cues they are using to the store the information. These cues will support learners when they attempt to retrieve the information.
Instructors should include opportunities for students to continue rehearsal of information as well as opportunities to retrieve the information. Overlearning material will result in automaticity of knowledge or skills making retrieval easier. If students are successfully able to retrieve information it is proof that that information has been completely processed from working memory to long term memory. The frequency of retrieval will ensure that students have not only retained that information but are able to use it effectively for new tasks. The more practice instructors can provide students with retrieval of information the more successful they will be.
Inputs or preconditions to learning (what is going to make it work)
The role of the environmental conditions and sensory information in the environment play in facilitating learning. The learner is viewed as a very active participant in the learning process. The cognitive approach focused on the mental activities of the learner that lead up to a response. The following are the Internal processes/conditions of learning (the learning processes that take place in the learner's mind):
Attention
Expectancies
Reception
Perception
Short-term memory
Rehearsing
Encoding
Long-term memory
Memory strategies
Encoding strategies
Executive control
Prior knowledge and experience
Learning outcomes (Declarative knowledge, procedural knowledge, memory)
memorization
conceptualization
application
problem solving
Learning Outcomes: Bloom's Taxonomy of Cognitive Development
Bloom identified six levels within the cognitive domain, from the simple recall or recognition of facts, as the lowest level, through increasingly more complex and abstract mental levels, to the highest order which is classified as evaluation. A description of the six levels as well as verb examples that represent intellectual activity are listed here.
Knowledge is defined as remembering of previously learned material. This may involve the recall of a wide range of material, from specific facts to complete theories, but all that is required is the bringing to mind of the appropriate information. Knowledge represents the lowest level of learning outcomes in the cognitive domain.
Verbs: arrange, define, duplicate, label, list, memorize, name, order, recognize, relate, recall, repeat, reproduce state.
Comprehension is defined as the ability to grasp the meaning of material. This may be shown by translating material from one form to another (words to numbers), by interpreting material (explaining or summarizing), and by estimating future trends (predicting consequences or effects). These learning outcomes go one step beyond the simple remembering of material, and represent the lowest level of understanding.
Verbs: classify, describe, discuss, explain, express, identify, indicate, locate, recognize, report, restate, review, select, translate.
Application refers to the ability to use learned material in new and concrete situations. This may include the application of such things as rules, methods, concepts, principles, laws, and theories. Learning outcomes in this area require a higher level of understanding than those under comprehension.
Verbs: apply, choose, demonstrate, dramatize, employ, illustrate, interpret, operate, practice, schedule, sketch, solve, use, write.
Analysis refers to the ability to break down material into its component parts so that its organizational structure may be understood. This may include the identification of the parts, analysis of the relationships between parts, and recognition of the organizational principles involved. Learning outcomes here represent a higher intellectual level than comprehension and application because they require an understanding of both the content and the structural form of the material.
Verbs: analyze, appraise, calculate, categorize, compare, contrast, criticize, differentiate, discriminate, distinguish, examine, experiment, question, test.
Synthesis refers to the ability to put parts together to form a new whole. This may involve the production of a unique communication (theme or speech), a plan of operations (research proposal), or a set of abstract relations (scheme for classifying information). Learning outcomes in this area stress creative behaviors, with major emphasis on the formulation of new patterns or structures.
Verbs: arrange, assemble, collect, compose, construct, create, design, develop, formulate, manage, organize, plan, prepare, propose, set up, write.
Evaluation is concerned with the ability to judge the value of material (statement, novel, poem, research report) for a given purpose. The judgements are to be based on definite criteria. These may be internal criteria (organization) or external criteria (relevance to the purpose) and the student may determine the criteria or be given them. Learning outcomes in this area are highest in the cognitive hierarchy because they contain elements of all the other categories, plus conscious value judgements based on clearly defined criteria.
Verbs: appraise, argue, assess, attach, choose compare, defend estimate, judge, predict, rate, core, select, support, value, evaluate.
Reference: Major categories in the cognitive domain of the taxonomy of educational objectives (Bloom, 1956).
Gagné identifies five major categories of learning: verbal information, intellectual skills, cognitive strategies, motor skills and attitudes. Different internal and external conditions are necessary for each type of learning.
The following matrix is abstracted from Gredler's (1997) descriptions of Gagne's condition of learning:
Learning Outcome
Conditions
Principles for Instructional Events
Verbal Information
Retrieving stored information: the internal conditions to support this learning include
• Preexisting of organized knowledge
• Strategies for processing the new information
• Provide meaningful context of information for encoding
• Provide elaborations, imagery, or other encoding cues
• Organize information so that it can be learned in chunks
Intellectual Skills
Metal operations that permits individuals to respond to conceptualizations of the environment:
• Discrimination
• Concrete and defined concepts
• Rule using
• Problem solving: combining subordinate rules in order to solve a problem
The internal conditions to facilitate this type of learning include:
• Recalling prerequisite skills
• Interacting in a variety of ways with the new learning
• Applying the new skills to range and variety of different situations and contexts
• Provide varied concrete examples and rules
• Provide opportunities for interacting with examples in different ways
• Assess learners in new situations
Cognitive Strategies
An internal process by which the learners plans, controls, and monitors his/her won ways of thinking and learning, including
• Task specific
• General
• Executive
• If task-specific, describe the strategy; if task general, demonstrate the strategy.
• Provide opportunities for strategy specific practice with support and feedback
Attitude
An internal state, i.e. predisposition that affects an individual choice of action
• Provide respected models who enact positive behavior and reinforce the model
• When learner enacts the behavior, provide reinforcement
Motor Skills
Capability to perform a sequence of physical movements. It involves three stages:
• Learning the sequence of the movement
• Practicing the movement
• Refining the movement from the feedback from the environment
• Establish executive subroutine and provide for mental rehearsal.
• Arrange several repetitions of skills with correct feedback
Strengths & Weaknesses
Strengths:
It is a scientific approach. The variables can be controlled and causal relationships and their effect can be determined and valid results can be produced.
Behavior can be largely explained in terms of how the mind works (i.e the Information Processing Approach).
Usefully applied to therapies such as Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) which can be very helpful when treating depression.
Weaknesses:
Does not account for environmental factors, such as nature vs nurture.
Ignores social and cultural factors.
Does not factor gender differences in learning.
Portrays human behavior to be like a machine (computer).
Metacognition
Definition
Metacognition is described in simple terms as thinking about one’s thinking. More elaborately put it is the process to which one plans, monitors, and assesses the understanding and current performance. Metacognition is awareness to one’s thinking and learning. Metacognition plays a role in successful learning because one has to be in control of their thinking and how one would go about a particular task.
Learning Outcomes
The diagram below illustrates the components that drive a learner’s metacognition. A learner’s metacognitive system is responsible for monitoring, evaluating, and regulating the functioning of all other types of thought. Marzano and Kendall mention these processes working together to form the “so-called executive control.” Goal setting is essential for students to “own their learning.”
Specifying goals: The learner executes this function when they determine a specific goal to increase competence and a plan for executing the learning as related to the type of knowledge.
Process monitoring: The learner monitors the effectiveness of the process and procedure to meet the goal they have identified.
Monitoring clarity: An indication to the learner’s disposition to the knowledge, through their monitoring clarity and accuracy. “Monitoring clarity involves determining the extent to which an individual is free from indistinction and ambiguity about knowledge.”
Monitoring accuracy: Determine the extent to which the individual is correct in terms of understanding specific knowledge. The learner will typically check their understanding by seeking out further information.
Delivering on the Promise establishes connections between learner motivation and the learner’s ability to connect to their “self-system.” According to authors Marzano and Kendall, the learner’s ability to initially learn or to deepen their competence in a given knowledge component is a function of three factors:
• Perceptions of its importance
• Perceptions of its efficacy
• Emotional response to the knowledge component.
http://www.competencyworks.org/resources/learner-goal-setting-and-monitoring-the-science-of-leading-their-learning/
The diagram below lists sample verbs for stating specific student learning outcomes. The verbs are grouped so as to demonstrate the movement from lower to higher level thinking.
Bloom’s Taxonomy
Role of Learner
The learner must take on a very active role with metacognition. They essentially must develop skills where they think about their thinking and learning. These metacognitive tasks must be learned. As in other cases their attitude plays a large role. One must admit they do not know some ideas and they need more cognitive skills. The student must spend time thinking about their learning during the learning. One of the best metacognitive skills is the evaluate your learning. The student may ask “Do I understand the information?”. They need to be directors of their learning by realizing where there are gaps and indicating they need to revisit some of the topics and skills they are learning. They may summarize in their own words, or ask if they could teach it to another student.
A very important aspect to learning and using metacognitive strategies is to practice their use. A student needs to continuously work on these skills as they learn. These skills include summary, restating, checking for understanding, inventories, organization, planning and more.
Role of the Instructor
In an educational setting instructors often call metacognition higher order or higher level skills. Although it is true younger children do operate with more concrete ideas, they can use metacognition effectively according to their cognitive abilities.
The instructor must greatly facilitate metacognitive strategies in younger and less experienced learners and less with skilled learners; for they have likely already formed and readily use metacognitive strategies.
The instructor must plan when using these strategies and must determine the best situations for multiple strategies. Then the instructor will work with the student by first introducing the strategy, then helping the student understand the strategy through modeling cognitive behaviors and thoughts while using the strategy.
Gredler offers four instructional conditions for teaching metacognition:
As mentioned above it must be training of cognitive processes
The assessment or performance criteria must include a requirement of metacognitive activities such as evaluation, monitoring progress and etc.
Teachers should model strategies along with self-reinforcement.
Practice is needed to enhance the skills and also they must use the processes in many differing metacognitive processes.
Process of Learning
Metacognitive approaches help learners monitor their own thinking while they learn. This allows them to decide best approaches while problem solving and better retain information because they are actively thinking about it. Learners must be aware not only of the new information coming (cognitive processes) but also how they are consciously thinking about the information (metacognitive processes).
Instructional Approach
In addition to cognitive processes, instructors should be concerned with metacognitive strategies. These strategies are “cognitive training with awareness”. This means that the instructor is explicitly teaching the skills, how to monitor them, and how to evaluate them. Instructors should also model how to choose a strategy. By including metacognitive strategies in the curriculum students are better able to think about their own thinking and are, in turn, better problem solvers.
An example of explicit teaching of metacognition is self-talk or teacher modeling. Teacher modeling, also known as self-talk, is when teachers verbally express what they are thinking as a way for students to understand the thought processes concerning materials. By hearing teachers talk about their thinking simultaneous to seeing a problem solved will better help them monitor their own thoughts when they are required to solve a problem. Modeling should be included for a variety of concepts. Other examples include: whole class discussions, explorations of many ways to solve a problem, discussions other solutions, and sharing realizations of instances where redirection of thinking was needed.
Instructional Applications
Metacognitive Intervention Strategies Scale:
The scale consists of 26 (twenty six) components under 3 dimensions.
In this study, the investigator developed teaching competency on five dimensions namely induction, content, pedagogy, organization and assessment. The findings revealed that there is a continuous improvement in all the dimensions of teaching competency. By implementing this strategy the graduate teacher training students, were able to internalize their ideas to bring out the concept perfectly due to self-regulation, a component of metacognitive intervention. Planning, monitoring and evaluating are the other three dimensions under metacognitve intervention that were used by the investigator to enhance the teaching competency of graduate teacher training students. The investigator suggests that this experiment will definitely help the future teachers to take their roles confidently by enhancing their teaching competency in the classroom situation. There is an urgent need to steer our efforts towards the implementation of Metacognitive intervention strategies to enhance teaching competency at all levels of Teacher Education.
http://pubs.sciepub.com/ajap/2/1/5/
Strengths and Weaknesses
Strengths:
Individuals with well-developed metacognitive skills have better problem solving skills.
Strategies are associated with successful learning.
Individuals with metacognitive skills do better on exams and complete work more efficiently.
Increase the learners’ abilities to transfer or adapt their learning to new contexts and tasks.
Helps students learn about their strengths and weaknesses as a learner.
Weaknesses:
Metacognitive skills take time to master. The skills can be taught, but it takes time and trial and error to determine what works for the individual learner.
Instructors must teach the skills and not all do. This can be especially true of college instructors, they assume students already have metacognitive skills from high school.
Teaching adult learners metacognitive skills can be more challenging.
Not all learners are the same therefore several strategies must be taught.
The knowledge dimension represents a range from concrete (factual) to abstract (metacognitive) (Table 2). Representation of the knowledge dimension as a number of discrete steps can be a bit misleading. For example, all procedural knowledge may not be more abstract than all conceptual knowledge. And metacognitive knowledge is a special case. In this model, "metacognitive knowledge is knowledge of [one’s own] cognition and about oneself in relation to various subject matters . . . " (Anderson and Krathwohl, 2001, p. 44).
(Table 2 adapted from Anderson and Krathwohl, 2001, p. 46.).